Even in ancient Greece, people tried to unravel the mysteries of the universe, and scientists put forward hypotheses based on observations and proved their guesses using scientific measurements. Throughout the history of mankind, the development of science has continued unceasingly up to the present day. Modern sciences are built on theories, which, in turn, have their own structure. Let's study their device and highlight the main functions.
The concept and structure of scientific theory
Scientific theory is a set of general knowledge about various phenomena or events that occur in the surrounding nature or society. This concept also has other meanings. Theory is a set of canons and principles developed on the basis of numerous observations and experiments that confirm the put forward idea, describe the nature of phenomena and objects under study. Moreover, scientific theory, through its methods of identifying patterns, helps to anticipate future events. Scientific theory is inextricably linked with philosophical views, because the worldview of a scientist or researcher is largelydetermines the boundaries and ways of development of science as a whole.
The structure of scientific theory includes problems that need to be solved. For this reason, any theory implies the need for practice, through which the goals are achieved. It should be remembered that a scientific theory does not always describe only one area of nature, it often covers several areas and contains a system of generalized knowledge. Take for example Einstein's theory of relativity, it is not limited to one natural phenomenon - light, on the contrary, this theory applies to absolutely all objects in our Universe. Below we will analyze in more detail what elements the hypothetical-deductive structure of a scientific theory consists of.
What is science and how is it related to philosophy
Our planet and everything on it moves according to certain laws that can be described using scientific methods. It is impossible to imagine the modern world without the development of science. All the knowledge that is available to mankind has accumulated over many centuries. Thanks only to scientific discoveries, our world is now the way we see it. The birth of science is associated with such a social phenomenon as philosophy (from the Greek "love of wisdom"). It is philosophers and thinkers who are considered the first to lay the foundation of modern sciences. In ancient Greece, philosophers were divided into two groups. The first are the Gnostics, these are those who believed that the world around us is knowable, that is, a person has unlimited possibilities for its full study. Second, the agnosticswere not so optimistic, they believed that the laws of the world order can never be known in their entirety.
Science is a relatively new word in Russian, originally it meant one specific subject. In the modern understanding, science is the entire system of knowledge and experience accumulated by mankind. Science can also be considered an activity aimed at collecting information and analyzing the facts obtained. People who do science are part of the scientific community. One of the scientists who made a huge contribution to the development of science as a philosophy is the Russian academician Vyacheslav Semenovich Stepin. In his work The Concept of the Structure and Genesis of Scientific Theory, Stepin took a completely new look at the problems of the philosophy of science. He created the concept of new methods of the theory of knowledge and revealed new types of civilizational development.
Philosophy of scientific theories
Several centuries ago, any theory was based on the principles of ancient philosophy, which called for the purification of the soul through the contemplation of the world and its knowledge. However, the New Age has opened up completely different views on the study of the phenomena around us. New conceptual and ideological theories of scientific thinking were created, which in the last century were formed into the ideas of critical rationalism. Despite the new methods used in science, the basis remains the same: the mental-intuitive contemplation of the cosmos, stars and other celestial bodies is preserved. Scientific theory and its structure in philosophy played a huge role, because onecould exist without the other. All the thoughts of the ancient philosophers were reduced to questions to which they found answers. The result of their searches was facts and scientific knowledge that needed to be structured and systematized. For these purposes, scientific theories were created, which were not only a tool for the development of science, but also an independent element that deserved close study.
The difference between theory and hypothesis
When studying the foundations and structure of a scientific theory, one should clearly distinguish between the concepts of hypothesis and theory. The following definitions are also very important for understanding our topic. So, as is known from the school curriculum, knowledge is that part of the intangible benefits that humanity accumulates and passes on from generation to generation. Since ancient times, people have kept their knowledge in songs or parables, which were then sung by wise old men. With the advent of writing, people began to write down everything. Knowledge is closely related to the concept of experience. Many things can be called experience: impressions received in the process of observation or activity, as well as knowledge and skills that a person has mastered as a result of work. Scientific theory, its structure and functions make it possible to systematize the accumulated knowledge and experience.
Let's return to our topic and see what is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory. So, a hypothesis is an idea that is expressed on the basis of what is seen or experienced. For example, you open a faucet, the more you deflect it, the more the flow of water increases. Therefore, you canput forward a hypothesis that the volume of streamlined water is directly proportional to the deflection of the crane, that is, the hypothesis is in the nature of reasoning or inference based on the phenomenon seen. A hypothesis is an assumption. A theory, on the other hand, is a system of knowledge that has not only been obtained as a result of observation, but has also been proven through measurements and repeated experiments. Moreover, the structure of scientific theory consists of laws and formulas that characterize and describe this or that phenomenon. It turns out that any scientific theory is a hypothesis proven by experiments, supplemented by mathematical or physical laws.
Classification of scientific theory
Science studies absolutely all aspects of our life and covers almost all phenomena and events taking place on our planet. It is very difficult to count the number of existing sciences, because some large areas of science branch off into smaller ones. For example, the science of mathematics may include arithmetic, number theory, probability theory, geometry, etc.
Scientific theory is an integral part of any science, so you should pay attention to the study of its foundations. So, the classification and structure of scientific theories is very similar to the division of the subject sciences themselves (natural, philological, technical, social). According to science scientists, they can be divided into three types:
- Mathematized theories. They are based on the general provisions of mathematics, and as models they use the concept of "ideal" objects. For example, a perfect ball rolls along a perfectflat surface (in this case, the surface has no resistance, although in reality such surfaces do not exist).
- Descriptive scientific theories. They are often created on the basis of numerous experiments and observations, which as a result provide empirical data about objects. The best-known descriptive theories include the following: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, Pavlov's theory of physiology, linguistic theories, and all the classical theories of psychology.
- Deductive scientific theories are the basis, the basis of science. For example, the very first deductive theory fulfilled the task of founding mathematics. This is the work of Euclid's "Beginnings", which was built on axiomatic systems. In those days, socially established norms served as an axiom, with which it was impossible not to agree. And already from these axioms-statements the postulates of the theory followed. This type is called deductive because the main method for developing a theory is the use of logical deductions from basic axioms.
Scientific theory and its logical structure may look different. Often scientific theories are classified according to the object of study, that is, according to the object of study (natural ones study nature and the world; social and humanitarian theories are associated with man and society). In other words, the type of theory is laid down on the basis of the sphere of our nature that science studies.
- Theories that reflect the objective physical, biological or social properties of the studieditems. These may include various theories related to anthropology, history and sociology.
- The second type of scientific theories is focused on displaying the subjective characteristics of objects (ideas, thoughts, consciousness, feelings and emotions). Theories of such sciences as psychology and pedagogy can be attributed to this type.
However, psychologically oriented theories do not always belong to the second type. So, for example, sociocultural anthropology, depending on the methods prevailing in it, can refer to both types of scientific theories. For this reason, a scientific theory and its logical structure should be built on the basis of the methods it uses, as well as the goals to which it is oriented.
Function and meaning of scientific theories
Before any science, regardless of its studied subjects, there are many tasks that need to be solved. The great theoretical scientist Albert Einstein studied the goals of scientific theories, from which their functions follow. It is important to understand that any theory must fulfill all the tasks described below. So, here are the main functions of scientific theories identified by scientists:
- Cognitive - is that any theory should strive to discover new laws in the area under study. After all, it is the reflection of reality in the formulations and laws that will provide a complete and clear picture of the phenomena taking place. What does it mean to know and understand objects of interest to us? The cognitive or, as it is also called, the epistemological function of scientific theory is precisely the mainmethod in the study of all external and internal properties of these objects. The structure of scientific theory suggests that the cognitive function studies not only the qualities of objects, but also the connections (relationships) between them and various natural phenomena or social processes.
- The systematizing function lies in the fact that the scientific theory analyzes and classifies all the accumulated knowledge and facts, and then, on their basis, structures one whole significant system. This function is considered continuous because new observations lead to new facts, forcing scientists to improve scientific theories. In simple words, the systematizing (synthetic) function combines disparate scientific knowledge and builds a logical relationship between them.
- The explanatory function allows not only to formulate and describe the facts, but also to analyze, understand and rethink them. Agree, it is impossible to call a person a scientist, just because he has learned the accumulated scientific facts. Comprehension and complete understanding of the essence of phenomena - that's what is more important. And it is the explanatory function that helps us interpret natural phenomena and complex processes.
- In the scientific theory (its structure and functions) there is one more significant role - prognostic. Thanks to effective techniques that are more based on natural patterns (for example, spring follows winter, the growth of plants and animals, that is, all the repeating forms or combinations that form in nature), the predictive function allows you to predict a number of events orprocesses. One of the most ancient scientific theories in which this function is predominant is meteorology. Modern science has such improved methods that it has become possible to predict the weather for several months ahead.
- Practical function is designed to facilitate the theory to such an extent that it can be applied in reality. It is difficult to imagine what the structure of a scientific theory could be if there were no practical benefits from its development.
Requirements for scientific theories (according to K. R. Popper)
One of the most famous and influential philosophers of the 20th century, who took a completely new look at the philosophy of science. He criticized the classical concepts of methods of cognition, instead of them he proposed to introduce a new structure of scientific theories, in which the main principles are the principles of critical rationalism. Karl Raymond Popper is considered the founder of the epistemological theory of critical empiricism. The main idea of the theory is the following postulates:
- scientific knowledge should be objective, that is, not depend on the opinion or judgment of one person or society as a whole;
- absolute knowledge (dogma) does not exist;
- any science needs to be criticized or refuted until empirical evidence proves otherwise.
K. Popper's theory has become one of the most discussed, his works were translated into many languages of the world. This philosopher created a new concept, according to which morea theory that meets several criteria is preferred. Firstly, it explores the object very deeply, therefore it reports the maximum amount of information. Second, the theory must have logical, explanatory, and enormous predictive power. Finally, it must be tested by time, that is, the predictions of the theory should be compared with facts and observations.
What is a scientific theory?
If we talk about the structure of scientific theory briefly, then three main components should be distinguished: the idea as the basis; methods and tools for studying the object; formulations and laws that characterize the properties of the object under study.
Let's take a closer look at each element to fully understand what a scientific theory is. The main criterion for any theory is its depth, that is, the depth of the phenomena under study. If a theory belongs to a particular science, then it must disclose precisely those objects that are relevant to this science. For example, the theory of relativity is one of the most important sections of modern physics, therefore the subject of study of this theory is an element or a whole system of processes related to the science of "physics".
The structure of a scientific theory also includes a set of methods and methods by which it solves many problems assigned to science. The third component of any theory is the strictly formulated laws to which the objects of study are subject. For example, in the "mechanics" section of the science of physics there are not only descriptive characteristics of phenomena and objects, but alsoformulas and laws that can be used to calculate unknown values of physical quantities.
Varieties of scientific theories
Scientific theory as the highest form of systematized knowledge has several directions. The theory is divided into types according to the principle of the science it studies. At the same time, the structure of scientific theory does not change, retaining all the important key elements. There are a huge number of theories that can be divided into the following varieties:
- biological - are considered one of the most ancient, since they arose in prehistoric times, they were certainly accompanied by medical facts about the human body;
- chemical theories - the first mention of alchemists dates back to the 4th century BC (representatives are scientists of Ancient Greece);
- sociological theories - combine not only the social system, but also the political aspects of states;
- physical - these theories laid the foundation for the development of modern technical sciences;
- Psychological theories allow you to take a fresh look at the human mind, at its soul.
This list can be continued for a long time, because not all theories are considered complete, some of them require further study.
Methods and ways of scientific theories
To solve any problem, a set of specific actions or methods is required. In scientific theories, several types of methods are distinguished, with the help of which logical-deductive elements of theories are built. The elements of the structure of scientific theory aregeneral logic and highly specialized methods.
| Empirical Research Methods |
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| Methods of theoretical knowledge |
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| General research methods and techniques |
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The most famous scientific theories that changed the world
With the development of the natural sciences, it has become possible to create many tools that greatly simplify the life of a modern person. However, a couple of centuries ago, people used candles due to the lack ofelectricity. Let's find out what scientific discoveries have changed our world and looks the way we see it now.
In the first place, perhaps, proudly stands the scientific work of Charles Darwin "Natural Selection". Published in 1859, it became the subject of the most heated debate between scientists and religious people. The essence and structure of Darwin's scientific theory lies in the fact that nature, the environment around us acts as a breeder, selecting the most "strong, adapted" species of living beings.
The theory of relativity, which was created in 1905 by the great scientist Albert Einstein, has had a huge impact on modern physics. Its meaning boils down to the fact that the methods of classical mechanics are not applicable to cosmic bodies.
One of the famous "biological" theories is the scientific theory of academician Pavlov "Conditioned reflexes". It says that every person and animal has innate instincts, thanks to which we survive.
There are a huge number of scientific theories, and each of them is considered an invaluable fragment in the general system of natural and technical sciences.
