The problem of thinking and intelligence of animals has been haunting scientists for many years now. Dictionaries define the intellect inherent in representatives of the animal world as the highest form of mental activity, characteristic of monkeys and some other vertebrates. The peculiarity of intelligence is the ability of a creature to display the components of the world in which it lives, as well as relationships, situations, connecting events. We speak of intelligence if the animal is able to deal with complex problems using non-stereotypical approaches, various options, including transference. Intelligence allows you to resort to various information received by the individual earlier in personal experience.
What is it about?
Scientists, trying to assess the level of intelligence of animals, realized that such a feature of the mental activity of an individual is manifested mainly by thought processes. At the same time, the thinking inherent in representatives of the animal world does not always have a motor or sensual concrete character. Thinking proceeds in relation to objects, in practice it is expressedthe ability to analyze the connections of phenomena and synthesize them. Thinking takes place in relation to some specific situation in which the individual finds himself, which the animal observes.
As shown by further research, intelligence is determined by the laws of biology. This allows you to distinguish it from the background inherent in man. Even individuals relatively close to our species are unable to think abstractly. Conceptual thinking is inaccessible to representatives of the animal world. Current research suggests that animals are incapable of perceiving root cause-and-effect relationships.
What did you think before?
Since ancient times, people have thought about how and in what categories representatives of the animal world think. Quite curious calculations on this can be found in Arabic books. In those days, it was believed that the intellect and language of animals and humans, although different, but at the same time inherent in the former is sufficient to understand the superiority of the latter. Some representatives of the Arab tribes seriously believed that lions, looking at the representatives of humanity, see not just another living creature, but a divine image, because of which the animal is filled with humility. Some believed that at the sight of a person, the lion begins to think about possible methods of action, understands that the methods of protection are unpredictable for him, therefore, he should move out of the visibility zone so as not to suffer. In those days, the Arabs believed that lions think in exactly the same way as a person, they are able to analyzethe presence of dangerous products, weapons in the met person, as well as assess the risks, weighing the facts.
Subsequently, such ideas were not forgotten. For example, psychologists engaged in the study and comparison of the intelligence of animals and humans, even in the last century, created approximately the same opuses in which they explained in detail the line of thought of a representative of the animal world. It is worth noting that such works were popular and appreciated by the audience. In the old days, usually the study of the psyche of a non-human was reduced to fortune-telling and judgments about what thoughts animals think. People did not even think about whether thoughts as a category are inherent in our smaller brothers. Previously, there were practically no differences between animals and humans.
Zoopsychology: seriously and not really
Today this direction (almost scientific, but not quite) is called anecdotal animal psychology. Within the framework of such studies, intelligence maps of wild animals, the ability to think of representatives of the animal world living near humans, were compiled and evaluated based on random observations, facts noticed by someone, which were not given an adequate explanation. In many ways, even the jokes that existed among hunters influenced in many respects - surprisingly, at some point they also became the basis for scientific calculations. Speculative speculation played its part. The anecdotal psychology of animals, it would seem, could not harm anyone, but such ideas slowed down the development of scientific progress and for a long time discredited zoopsychology asarea of serious research. People began to say that the study of the animal psyche belongs to the zone of absurdity, the psychology of animals is impossible and unbelievable in principle.
Further progress in scientific research in the field of animal skills and intelligence has shown that zoopsychology has a place. Moreover, responsible scientists who have devoted themselves to this issue have clearly shown the importance of conducting adequate research work. The true approach does not imply the humanization of representatives of the animal world, but specializes in the study of the psyche - simplified in comparison with the human. Tests have shown that the inherent psyche of animals is organized and structured quite differently from that of a human, which makes determining its inherent structure an even more curious challenge.
Differences: are there any?
Comparing the intelligence of animals and humans, we found that the psyche of the representatives of our species is due to the peculiarities of formation, fundamentally different from all the others. For a person, labor, as well as social practices, became the basis. In animals, such phenomena are absent in principle. At the same time, the human psyche and the consciousness of the representatives of the species originated in ancient times, even before the appearance of mankind - among our ancestors. To navigate this issue, scientists conducted comparative studies.
In many ways, success in studying the intelligence inherent in representatives of the animal world is due to the work of the Soviet scientist Severtsov. The study of the intelligence of individuals belonging to different evolutionary stages is necessary in order to orientpatterns of evolution. Severtsov proved that the psyche is one of the key aspects of animal evolution.
Names and ideas
About how important animals with intelligence are, Lenin said. In his works, one can find an indication of the opinion that the development of the mind of representatives of the animal world is a sphere of scientific research, which should be the dialectical base and foundation of cognitive theory. In general, it is said that the subject of zoopsychological scientific work extends beyond the highly specialized sphere of psychologists working with animals. However, those who do not agree with materialistic ideas believe that it is impossible to know the world. This affected the field of studying the psyche of animals and their intellectual capabilities.
Dubois-Reymond in his works identified seven key mysteries that will never be explored by science. He spoke of the impotence of science and the inability of man to know the world. The fifth point out of seven was the emergence of consciousness, and the sixth - the development of thinking, and with it the ability to speak coherently. The scientist devoted other points to biological, physical general problems. Dubois-Reymond wrote his works as a representative of a reactionary ideological movement, which turned out to be stronger than the desire of natural scientists of that time to study the psyche of humans and animals. Ultimately, at that moment, intelligence was recognized as a gift from the powers that be.
Know: is it possible?
Today it is obviously proved that Dubois-Reymond's postulates were incorrect. It became clear that they were wrongthere were those who considered research to determine whether animals have intelligence far from reality, useless. However, the study of these areas for scientists of our time is a considerable difficulty, because it is impossible to get into the soul of a representative of the living world, whoever and whatever he may be, which means that it is extremely difficult to judge the manifestations, drawing simple analogies with what is already for certain known. It is even more unacceptable to guess, so as not to return to the old anecdotal science.
Fischel's works are quite curious in this matter, devoted to whether animals have intelligence, what it is and where it came from. This scientist talks about personal research experience. Fischel is valued for his great contribution to the study of the psychology of both animals and humans. His first known work was published in 1938, and several more works were later released. From year to year, at the initiative of the scientist, colloquia were organized on the intellect and psychology of animals. This proved to be useful for representatives of the agricultural sector of the national industry.
Step by step
Studying the problem of animal intelligence, Fischel made a special aspect of identifying the presence of goals in representatives of this world. No less attention is paid to the emotional state of the subject, the experiences that animals face. Emotions are associated with behavioral motivation, as they enhance some physiological functions of the body and lead to an increase in vital activity. Such activity is directed to specific objects or processes in the environment,in which the individual lives. The studies devoted to this problem were published in the primary form, then republished, and at present the work that was published in 1967 seems to be the most curious.
Studying the problem of animal intelligence and the nuances of brain activity, Fischel resorted to cybernetic achievements. At the same time, the scientist did not seek to associate biological processes in the central nervous system and physical processes characteristic of models in cybernetics. He set himself the task of demonstrating that only the result is the same, but the processes leading to it are very different. The specificity of what is happening is considered one of the most important aspects of the study of brain functionality. For scientists, the outcome is important, but the study of the processes in the brain that lead to it is considered even more significant. Presumably, zoopsychological scientific research in the future will finally reveal the features of what is happening in the CNS of animals at different levels.
Theory and practice
Modern studies of human and animal intelligence are largely based on Pavlov's earlier study of monkeys. Particularly curious are the works organized with the involvement of anthropoid species. As it was possible to establish for certain, monkeys differ from other representatives of the animal world in a kind of manual thinking, which, probably, is a prerequisite for understanding, primary work on a task. Manual thinking was the ability of an animal to receive information and think through the hands. Accordingly, experience appears as the result of a practical analysis of the objects that the individual manipulates. Such thinkingtakes place in action, it appears when feeling, trying to break, open a certain product. Intellect, thinking are active when eating, during the game, and the individual studies the subject and realizes the connections of its elements.
Studying the intellect of humans and animals, we found that for the latter, only awareness of relationships that can be touched and seen is available. This is the basic condition of monkey thinking, which limits the intellectual capabilities of the individual. However, other animals do not even have such qualities, so manual thinking is considered to be unique to monkeys. This does not exclude the presence of the rudiments of intelligence in representatives of other species.
Causes, effects and thinking
Studying the intelligence of animals, scientists, of course, pay special attention to monkeys, but this does not mean that their ability to think should be overestimated. This is especially true when considering the lower varieties. Observations were made on some individuals, which, it would seem, created some kind of tool from improvised material, with which they could achieve the desired goal. Adequate assessment of observations showed that the animal did not understand the real possibilities of using what it had created. Consequently, causal relationships remained unattainable for him. Things are somewhat more complicated in the anthropoid species, which are able to assess which causes lead to specific effects, but their ability to analyze the situation is very limited.
It cannot be said that animal intelligence has nothing to do withhuman, because, as scientists have established, initially our ancestors had the opportunity to think only with their hands. Labor is the primary source of the human mind, it is also the foundation of intellectual abilities. It's about manual labor. He does not imagine himself without the use of tools, and only those who have hands obtained from monkeys can use them. Hands worked as tools of labor, and this became the foundation of progress - manual thinking was overcome, and new prospects for the development of intellect appeared. At the same time, the hands of individuals acquired the features inherent in modern man.
Who is the smartest?
Distracting from the theoretical base, it is worth turning to the works of modern researchers dedicated to animals with high intelligence. As shown by the observations and the study of the characteristics of reactions, some representatives of the animal world that surrounds us are characterized by quite powerful mental abilities. Many of our compatriots remember the turtle Tortilla from childhood. This animal in our country is associated with wisdom. According to many modern researchers, this attitude has an absolutely logical justification: some varieties of turtles have good intellectual abilities. These representatives of the animal world can learn, easily find a way out, being in a maze. The turtle is easy to turn into a pet, it quickly learns the skills inherent in other individuals of the same species. Turtles are known to have the ability to quickly overcome their fear of humans, so they start eating right out of their hands.
Studying intelligenceanimals, scientists turned their attention to the world of molluscs and found that exceptional capabilities are inherent in cephalopods. Among all their relatives, they are the smartest. Many varieties are able to mimic. Octopuses easily pass memory tests. By nature, they are given excellent navigational abilities. Squids live in packs and scientists believe they have a special codified language that allows individuals to interact.
So different, but all smart
If the presence of intelligence in domestic animals seems obvious to many, because the representatives of the animal world around us learn easily and quickly, this feature is not so pronounced in insects. And yet, bees, according to some, have good abilities. They stand out from the rest of the insects. It is known that bees are able to navigate the star, to perceive the electromagnetic waves of the planet. They remember what they see. These are social creatures interacting with each other through dance.
Studying the intelligence of animals, they paid attention to crocodiles. Some time ago, the image of true demons in the flesh was attached to these mammals, but relatively recent studies prove that it is erroneous. Representatives of this species are characterized by playfulness. In addition, a crocodile can be taught a lot. It is known that once such a mammal lived until death in a person who cured him of a wound. The crocodile swam in the pool with the one he recognized as a friend, entered into games, and sometimes evensimulated an attack, but not seriously. The owner could stroke his pet, kiss, hug.
Curious: what else?
Sheep are no less attractive. Traditionally, it is customary to think that these are very, very stupid animals, but recent scientific work on this topic shows an excellent memory for faces inherent in sheep. These are social individuals who can build relationships. A key feature of representatives of this species is the tendency to be afraid of everything. At the same time, sheep tend to hide their weaknesses and try to hide any illnesses. In this aspect, their behavior is comparable to that of a human.
Pigeons are also quite interesting. The use of these birds to deliver mail has been known for a long time. It was invented because these birds have a natural instinct to go home. From Russian history, we know that Princess Olga was well aware of this quality of birds and used it to achieve her political goals. The pigeon brain is able to process a large amount of information and store it for a long time. The dove receives information through all the senses. His visual system is such that everything useless is cut off, while his eyesight is sharp, it goes well with an impeccable memory. Thanks to this quality, the pigeon easily makes a route, focusing on the visual images received.
Living near us
Studying the inherent intelligence and mental abilities of animals, scientists turned their attention to horses. Many representatives of this species are cunning, quick-witted, excellentremember what happened. Akhal-Teke species are known as monogamous. Once having chosen the owner, they devote their lives to him. All horses are capable of learning. A smart horse will not step on its owner's foot. But animals specially trained to disperse crowds will not stand on ceremony.
Raccoons are very curious, often living near a human house. In recent years, public attention has been drawn to them. These animals are very smart. Striving for food, they are able to use improvised tools, build logical sequential chains. A raccoon remembers the solution to a problem for an average of three years.
