Among the many gods of the Romans, Jupiter, son of Saturn, was the supreme god associated with thunder, lightning and storms. The first inhabitants of Rome believed that they were being watched by the spirits of their ancestors, and they added to these spirits a triad of gods: Mars, the god of war; Quirinus, the deified Romulus, who looked after the inhabitants of Rome; Jupiter, the supreme god. By the time of the rise of the Republic, Jupiter had come to be revered as the greatest of all gods, but the rest of the old triad was replaced by Juno (his sister and wife) and Minerva (his daughter). Jupiter's most important title was "Jupiter Optimus Maximus" which means "The Best and Greatest" and indicated his role as the father of the gods.
Temple on the Hill
Like the Etruscans and Greeks before them, the Romans are known for building monumental temples in highly visible places. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, located on the Capitoline Hill in the heart of ancient Rome, reflected this tradition well (today it houses a square designed by the Renaissance artist Michelangelo). Unfortunately, neglect, reuse of stone for new construction andthe reworking of the site means there is very little left of the Temple of Jupiter to explore. However, its influence can be seen in the many Roman temples that imitated it, making it perhaps the most important in terms of its cultural influence and design.
Current state and original appearance
The remains of the temple include parts of a tufa foundation (a type of volcanic ash stone) and a podium, as well as some marble and terracotta architectural elements. Most of the structural remnants can be seen in situ (in their original setting) on the grounds of the Palazzo Caffarelli, while the surviving fragments are in the Capitoline Museum.
Based on the preserved parts of the archaic foundation, the podium for the temple probably measured approximately 50 x 60 m. However, these measurements are somewhat speculative. At present, it can be assumed that the temple was quite similar to the plan of the temples of the late archaic Etruscans, such as the Temple of Minerva at Veii (also called the temple of Portonaccio) - a high podium (platform) with a single frontal staircase leading to a deep pronaos (porch), consisting of three columns, with a hexagonal arrangement (six columns across). One of the defining features of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was its tripartite (three-sided) interior space, with three adjoining cellae (rooms) for the three main deities revered in this temple (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva).
The earliest phase of the temple consisted of terracotta elements, includingacroteria (roofline sculptures) and a large terracotta statue of Jupiter driving a quadriga (four-horse chariot). Inside the temple was another depiction of Jupiter, a cult statue supposedly made by the famous archaic sculptor Vulka of Veii. This statue was painted red and inspired the tradition of painting the faces of Roman generals during officially sanctioned triumphs.
In contrast to the modest terracotta (fired clay) used to decorate the earliest versions of the temple, some Roman sources note that later reconstructions made during the Roman period contained more extravagant materials. Ancient authors including Plutarch, Suetonius, and Ammianus described the temple as outstanding in quality and appearance, with a superstructure of pentelic marble, gilded tiles, gilded doors, and intricate relief sculpture on the pediment.
History
Although the temple was mainly dedicated to Jupiter, it also had places to worship Juno and Minerva. Together, the three deities formed the so-called Capitoline Triad, a divine group significant to the Roman state religion. Jupiter, the Roman equivalent of Zeus, was the most significant of these deities.
Important date for Rome
The temple was reportedly completed around 509 BC. e. - the date itself is significant as it indicates the estimated year during which the Romans overthrew the monarchy (which was Etruscan andnon-Roman) and established a republican system of government. Thus, the temple was not only located in a prominent geographical location, but was also a constant reminder of the moment when the Romans defended their independence. This historical proximity of the founding of the Republic with the construction of the Temple of Jupiter may also have helped support its central role in Roman religion and architectural design practice.
Destroyed and rebuilt
The Temple of Jupiter in Rome itself was destroyed and rebuilt several times during the Republican and Imperial periods, with several restorations along the way. First destroyed in 83 BC. e., during the civil wars in Sulla, the temple was re-consecrated and rebuilt in the 60s BC. Augustus claimed to have rebuilt the temple, most likely as part of his building program, which began during his rise to power in the first century BC. The temple was destroyed again in 69 CE. e., during the turbulent "year of the four emperors." Although it was restored by Emperor Vespasian in the 70s AD. e., it burned down again during a fire in 80 AD. e. Emperor Domitian carried out the final major reconstruction of the temple between 81 and 96 AD. n. e.
After the first century AD, the temple seems to have retained its structural integrity until Emperor Theodosius liquidated public funds for the upkeep of pagan temples in 392 AD (Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire). After this, the templeonce subjected to destruction in the era of late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Eventually, in the sixteenth century BC, a large residence, the Palazzo Caffarelli, was built on the site.
Public function
The Temple of Capitoline Jupiter in Rome was not just an ordinary religious building. From its earliest stages, the temple has also supposedly been a repository of objects of ritual, cultural and political significance. For example, the "Sibylline Oracles" (books containing the prophecy of the Sibyls) were kept at this place, as well as some military trophies, such as the shield of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal. In addition, the temple served as the end point for triumphs, a meeting place for the senate, a place for joint religious and political performance, an archive for public records, and a physical symbol of the supremacy and divine will of Rome.
Perhaps the best depiction of Jupiter's Capitoline Temple can be seen on the Sacrificial Plaque from the now-lost arch of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. In this relief, Marcus Aurelius is depicted as the chief priest offering sacrifice to Jupiter in the midst of a crowd of attendants. In the background is a temple with three doors, presumably the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter.
Influence
Although the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built in the Etruscan style with the participation of Etruscan masters, it nevertheless serves as a starting point for the development of the Roman temple-building tradition, which is oftenincorporated local elements more broadly into the Roman pattern.
In terms of architectural history, the enduring significance of the Temple of Jupiter can best be recognized by its influence on the construction of Roman places of worship from the last two centuries BC to the third century AD. Imperial temples throughout the empire, including the Temple of Portunus in Rome, the Maisons Carré in France, and the many Capitols (temples dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva) of the Roman colonies founded in North Africa, show an obvious visual connection with the Capitoline Temple. They are united by a common frontality, a deep front entrance and a rich sculptural decoration. However, the influence of the Temple of Jupiter can also be seen in the general Roman approach to architectural design-monumental scale, urban setting, sumptuous decoration, and imposing height. Together, these elements are the hallmarks of Roman temples and suggest that it was the starting point for what would become the universally recognized architectural sign of Roman rule over the Mediterranean world. In particular, the original Gallo-Roman temple of Jupiter was located on the site where Notre Dame Cathedral now stands.
Other buildings
After the colonization of Pompeii, the temple previously built there became the Capitol, a temple dedicated to the metropolitan triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, in accordance with the religious tradition of Rome. With its dominant position in the Forum and the towering Vesuvius behind it, the Temple of Jupiter (Pompeii) isa symbolic depiction of the destruction of the city. It stands on a podium about 17 meters long along the facade, has a series of steps running along the entire facade overlooking the Forum. At the top of the steps, six columns (originally about 12 meters high) led into an open space (pronaos) which in turn led to the cella or inner sanctuary. Cella was divided into three zones, which contained the statues of the Capitoline triad. The temple had two narrow flights of stairs, one on each side of the large central platform where the altar stood, and two monumental balustrades with equestrian statues. A bas-relief depicting the temple during the earthquake was found in a lararium in the house of Caecilius Jucundus and gives us an idea of what the building really looked like. Beneath the podium was a series of small rooms containing the temple's sacred items, offerings, and possibly also a treasure chest.
The Temple of Jupiter Stator was a retreat on the slopes of Capitol Hill. According to Roman legend, King Romulus founded it after promising to build it during a battle between the Roman army and the Sabines.
The battle took place in the Forum area between Romulus and Tatius, king of the Sabines. The Romans were forced to retreat uphill on the Via Sacra. However, at Porta Mugonia, Romulus prayed to Jupiter and swore to him to build a temple if he stopped the advance of the Sabines. The Romans regrouped and held their positions without being defeated.
Romulus founded a temple on this site, probably not far fromPorta or near it. The sanctuary was most likely just an altar surrounded by a low wall or fence.
In 294 B. C. e. Marcus Atilius Regulus took a similar oath in a similar situation where the Romans were losing a battle against the Samnites, but they miraculously turned around, regrouped and held their ground against the enemy.
The temple was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome during the reign of Nero in July 64.
