Being an important component of world spiritual culture, Russian philosophy until 1917 was famous for its humanism and had a huge impact on the development of the entire human civilization. It originated in the context of theological thought and was formed under the influence of Orthodox traditions. But the 20th century brought its cardinal changes to this situation. After the October Revolution, completely different ideas received state and popular support. During this period, Soviet philosophy was rapidly developing, taking as a basis the materialist doctrine, dialectics and the Marxist worldview.
Ideological and political basis
Philosophy, having become part of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, has turned into the ideological weapon of the new government in the Soviet Union. Its supporters launched a real uncompromising war with dissidents. Representatives of all non-Marxist ideological schools were considered as such. Their thoughts and works were declared harmful and bourgeois, and therefore unacceptable for working people and adherents of the communistideas.
Sharp criticism was experienced by many areas of religious philosophy, ridiculed intuitionism, personalism, pan-unity and other theories. Their followers were persecuted, arrested, often even physically destroyed. Many Russian scientists-philosophers were forced to emigrate from the country and continue their scientific activities abroad. Since that moment, Russian and Soviet philosophy have been divided, and the paths of their followers have diverged.
The origins of Marxism and its components
Marxism, according to one of the leading ideologists of this doctrine - Lenin, was based on three main "pillars". The first of these was dialectical materialism, the origins of which were the works of the famous German philosophers of previous centuries, Feuerbach and Hegel. Their followers added to these ideas and developed them. Over time, they even evolved from a simple philosophy into a whole vast worldview of the 20th century. According to this doctrine, matter is something that has not been created by anyone, and has always really existed. It is in constant motion and development from the lower to the more perfect. And mind is her highest form.
Marxist philosophy, firmly on its feet in the Soviet period, became a kind of opposite to idealism, which claimed that consciousness is not matter, but consciousness. For which hostile ideas were criticized by V. I. Lenin and his followers, who transferred their doctrine from natural science to political life. They saw in dialectical materialism a confirmation of the fact that society, developing according to its own laws, is moving towards its ultimate goal -communism, that is, a completely just ideal society.
The origins of another part of the teachings of Karl Marx was the English political economy, which was rapidly developing in the 19th century. The ideas of the predecessors subsequently turned out to be brought under a social basis, giving the world the concept of the so-called surplus value. The first teacher and inspirer of the philosophy of the Soviet period, who soon became the idol of socialism, in his work "Capital" expressed an opinion on bourgeois production. Marx argued that the owners of factories and enterprises deceive their workers, since the hired people work only part of the day for themselves and for the development of production. The rest of their time they are forced to work to enrich and fill the pockets of the capitalists.
The third source of this teaching was the utopian socialism that came from France. It was also revised, supplemented and scientifically substantiated. And such ideas were embodied in the doctrine of the class struggle and faith in the final victory of the socialist revolution in all countries of the world. All these provisions, according to the ideologists of Marxism, were considered fully proven and could not be subject to doubt. These were the foundations of the Bolshevik ideology and philosophy of the Soviet period.
Stage of formation
The 20s of the last century are considered the initial stage in the formation of the Marxist doctrine in the USSR, supplemented in the works of Lenin. In this period of time, the rigid framework of the communist ideology was already tangible, but there was still room for disputes.warring factions, scientific and political discussions. The ideas of Soviet philosophy only took root in the territory of the former Russian Empire, where revolutionary morality was increasingly winning.
But scientists-philosophers in their works touched upon a wide range of issues: biological, universal, social, economic. Engels's work en titled "Dialectics of Nature", which was first published just at that time, was subjected to active discussion, where there was a place for he althy controversy.
Bukharin's views
Being a convinced Bolshevik, Bukharin N. I. (his photo is presented below) was considered in those years the largest and recognized theorist of the party. He accepted materialistic dialectics, but was not an adherent of certain dogmas approved from above, but tried to logically rethink everything. That is why he became the creator of his own trend in Soviet philosophy. He developed the so-called equilibrium theory (mechanism), which speaks of the relative stability of a society that develops in an atmosphere of naturally occurring opposing forces, the very antagonism of which is ultimately the cause of stability. Bukharin believed that after the victory of the socialist revolution, the class struggle should gradually die out. And free thought and the ability to openly express and prove one's point of view will become the foundation for finding truly correct solutions. In a word, Bukharin saw Soviet Russia as a democratic country in the future.
It turned out to be completethe opposite of the ideas of Stalin I. V., who, on the contrary, spoke of the aggravation of the confrontation between classes and party control over the moods and thoughts hovering in society, leaving no room for doubt and discussion. Freedom of speech was replaced in his ideas by the dictatorship of the proletariat (such a concept was very fashionable and widespread in those days). After Lenin's death, these philosophical concepts took the form of a political confrontation between two figures with great influence and power in the country. In the end, Stalin and his ideas won the fight.
In the 1920s, such well-known thinkers as Professor Deborin, who supported materialist dialectics and considered it the basis and essence of all Marxism, also worked in the country; Bakhtin M. M., who accepted the ideas of the century, but rethought them from the point of view of the works of Plato and Kant. Mention should also be made of A. F. Losev, the creator of many volumes on philosophy, as well as L. S. Vygodsky, a researcher of the development of the psyche from a cultural and historical angle.
Stalin period
The origins of Stalin's worldview (Joseph Dzhugashvili) were Georgian and Russian culture, as well as the Orthodox religion, because in his adolescence he studied at the seminary, and during these years he saw proto-communist ideas in Christian teaching. Severity and rigidity in his character coexisted with flexibility and the ability to think broadly, but the main feature of his personality was intransigence towards enemies. In addition to being a great politician, Stalin had a considerable influence on the development of Soviet philosophy. Its main principle was the unity of theoreticalideas with practical activities. The pinnacle of his philosophical thought is the work "On Dialectical and Historical Materialism".
The Stalinist stage in the country's philosophy lasted from 1930 until the end of the life of the great figure and leader of the state. Those years were considered to be the heyday of philosophical thought. But later this stage was declared a period of dogmatism, the vulgarization of Marxist ideas and the complete decline of free thought.
Among the prominent philosophers of that time, we should mention Vernadsky VI. He created and developed the doctrine of the noosphere - the biosphere, intelligently controlled by human thought, which becomes a powerful factor that transforms the planet. Megrelidze K. T. is a Georgian philosopher who studied the phenomenon of thinking that develops according to socio-historical laws from the sociological side. These and other prominent scientists of that period made a huge contribution to Russian philosophy during the Soviet period.
From the 60s to the 80s
After Stalin's death, the revision of his role in Soviet history and the condemnation of the cult of his personality, when some signs of freedom of thought began to appear, a clear revival was felt in philosophy. This subject is beginning to be actively taught in educational institutions not only in the humanities, but also in the technical direction. The discipline was enriched by the analysis of the works of ancient thinkers and medieval scientists. Prominent representatives of Soviet philosophy traveled abroad during this period, and they were allowed to participate in international conferences. In the same years, the magazine began to appear"Philosophical Sciences". Interesting studies have appeared on the history of Rus, both Kievan and Moscow.
However, this time did not give the world especially bright names and ideas in philosophy. Despite the weakening of party dictates, the real spirit of freedom and creativity has not penetrated into the scientific world. Basically, scientists repeated the thoughts of Marxist predecessors memorized from childhood and stamped phrases. Mass repressions were not observed in those days. But scientists knew that if they want to make a career, become famous and have material we alth, they must blindly repeat what the party structures want to hear from them, and therefore creative thought was marking time.
Ideological control in science
Describing Soviet philosophy, it should be noted that, based on Marxism-Leninism, it has become a state instrument of ideological control over science. There are enough cases when this hindered progressive development and had extremely negative consequences. Genetics is a prime example of this.
After 1922, this direction seems to have begun to develop rapidly. Scientists were provided with all conditions for work. Experimental stations and research institutes were created, and an agricultural academy arose. Such talented scientists as Vavilov, Chetverikov, Serebrovsky, Koltsov showed themselves excellently.
But in the 30s, there were major disagreements in the ranks of breeders and geneticists, which later led to a split. Many leading geneticists were arrested, received prison terms, evenshot. Why did these scientists not please the state? The fact is that, according to the majority, genetics did not fit into the framework of dialectical materialism, which means that it contradicted Soviet philosophy. The postulates of Marxism could not be questioned. Therefore, genetics was declared a false science. And the doctrine of "hereditary substance", contrary to common sense, was recognized as idealistic.
In the post-war period, geneticists tried to take a revenge match and defend their positions, citing significant successes of foreign colleagues as reasonable arguments. However, in those days, the country no longer listened to scientific arguments, but to political considerations. The times of the Cold War have come. And therefore, all capitalist science was automatically presented as harmful and hindering progress. And the attempt to rehabilitate genetics was declared propaganda of racism and eugenics. The so-called "Michurin genetics" triumphed, promoted by the incompetent scientist academician Lysenko T. D. (his portrait can be seen below). And only after the discovery of DNA, genetics in the country began to gradually restore its position. It happened in the mid 60s. Such was the philosophy in the Soviet Union, it did not tolerate objections to its postulates and admitted mistakes with great difficulty.
International Influence
Taking Marxism-Leninism as a basis, some countries developed their own similar philosophies, which turned into a set of certain ideological attitudes and became a means of political struggle for power. An exampleThis is Maoism, which originated in China. In addition to what was brought in from outside, it was also based on the national traditional philosophy. At first, he inspired the national liberation movement. And later it even became widespread in many countries of Asia and Latin America, where it is still very popular. The creator of this philosophy was Mao Zedong, a great politician, the leader of the Chinese people. He developed a philosophical doctrine, touching upon the problems of cognition, possible criteria for finding the truth, considered issues of political economy, introduced the theory of the so-called "new democracy" into life.
Juche is the North Korean version of Marxism. This philosophy says that a person as a person is not only the master of himself, but also of the world around him. Despite significant signs of similarity with Marxism, North Korea has always emphasized the originality of the national philosophy and its independence from Stalinism and Maoism.
Speaking about the influence of Soviet philosophy on world thought, it should be noted that it made a noticeable impression both on international scientific minds and on the political alignment of forces on the planet. Some accepted it, others criticized and hated it with foam at the mouth, called it an instrument of ideological pressure, a struggle for power and influence, even a means of achieving world domination. But still, she left few people indifferent.
Philosophical steamboat
The tradition of expelling all dissident philosophers from the country was founded by Lenin in May 1922, whenSoviet Russia was forcibly and most humiliatingly deported 160 people - representatives of the intelligentsia - by flights of passenger ships. Among them were not only philosophers, but also figures in literature, medicine and other fields. Their property was confiscated. This was explained by the fact that, for humane reasons, they did not want to shoot them, but they could not stand them either. Said voyages were soon called "philosophical steamships". This was also done later with those who criticized or simply publicly expressed doubts about the implanted ideology. Under such conditions, Soviet philosophy was formed.
Zinoviev A. A. (his photo below) became one of the dissidents from the time of the triumph of Marxism. In the 50s and 60s of the last century in the USSR, it turned into a symbol of the revival of free philosophical thought. And his book "Yawning Heights", published abroad and having a satirical focus, became the impetus for his fame throughout the world. He was forced to emigrate from the country without accepting the Soviet philosophy. His worldview is difficult to attribute to any particular philosophical trend, but his moods were distinguished by tragedy and pessimism, and his ideas were anti-Soviet and anti-Stalinist. He was a supporter of non-conformism, that is, he sought to defend his opinion, which was contrary to that accepted in society. This determined his character, behavior and actions.
Post-Soviet philosophy
After the collapse of the Soviet state, the worldview of people changed dramatically, which created the basis for newscientific theories. Spiritual freedom appeared, gradually developed and expanded. That is why Soviet and post-Soviet philosophy differed radically.
There was an opportunity to study problems that were previously subject to an indisputable ban: authoritarianism, political mythology and others. In defending scientific positions, philosophers began to listen to interesting arguments.
This also applied to adherents of Marxism, who also had every opportunity to freely express their ideas and found an audience. They revised many of their own views, and supplemented some ideas, taking into account new historical facts, the achievements of civilization and science. Of course, after all, Marx, Engels and Lenin, as well as their faithful followers, were only people and could be wrong. But still, their work is the property of world philosophy, and their ideas should not be forgotten.
In the 90s, despite a very tangible lack of funds, social philosophy is being transformed and religious philosophy is being revived. The Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the direction of V. S. Stepanov takes a huge part in the organization of new research. New interesting journals appear: Logos, Philosophical Research, Man, and many others. They are not only published, but also win a wide circle of readers. A huge number of books by Russian emigrant classics, whose names were previously little known or forgotten, are also published. And this could not but influence the development of philosophical thought.
